Each ritual and art-form is intertwined with the lives of the people, Nature and worship traditions in Kerala. Most annual ceremonies are celebrated in conjunction with harvest festivals. During the harvest season, as the bounty of the land is celebrated, the rituals dedicated to Bhadrakali, the village guardian and provider of food, hold prime importance. These rituals are meant to seek her blessings for the well-being of the people.  In central Travancore, the Padayani is a famous ritual folk artform that evolved as part of ancient Bhadrakali worship, and is deeply rooted in agricultural tradition. The Padayani, also known as Padeni, is one of the ancient forms of ritual predominantly performed in the central Travancore regions of Pathanamthitta and Alappuzha in Kerala. The term ‘Padayani’ is the fusion of two words - ‘Pada,’ meaning a group of soldiers, and ‘Ani,’ meaning rows. It is believed that warriors trained in the martial art of Kalaripayattu performed the Padayani to showcase their strength and bravery, aiming to intimidate their enemies in southern Travancore. Another version suggests that the performance is associated with the march of Goddess Kali in her fight against the demon Darika, which forms the foundational story of the performance.

Performance
The Padayani has a rich artistic tradition that combines indigenous music, rhythm and visual art culture. The foundational text for Padayani performances originates from the ancient Shaiva and Shakti cults of worship, showcasing a form of dedicated devotion mixed with Tantric elements. Besides worship and rituals, the Padayani incorporates dramatic elements mixed with humour and satire, which help to connect the common people with the performance. The central figure of the Padayani, known as the Kolam, represents Goddess Bhadrakali. The huge headgear worn by the Kolam is an iconic element of this art-form. The main Kolam performs a dance, to the accompaniment of music and percussion, representing the goddess, while the other characters engage in improvised dialogues and movements. There are realistic human characters as part of the performance who often communicate with the spectators, and that makes the performance more dramatic, human and enjoyable. The different characters or effigies that appear in the Padayani include Pakshi, Kaalan, Kuthira, Maadan, Marutha, Pishach, Ganapathi, Bhairavi and Kanjiramala. The Padayani performances include a number of sessions such as Kolamezhuthu (drawing the Kolam), Kolamthullal (Kolam dance), Kolappattu (Kolam songs), Thappumelam (percussion ensemble) and Vinodam (the satirical part). The dance, music and percussion elements follow the indigenous music and rhythm culture of Kerala, which is a unique aspect of ancient ritual practices. The major instrument used is the Thappu - a percussion instrument consisting of a broad wooden ring covered on one side with processed hide. The major rhythm patterns used are Marma, Lakshmi, Champa, Kaarika, Kumbha and Adantha, with footwork and body movements corresponding to these rhythms.

The performance takes place in the courtyards of Kali temples. The main rituals are performed late in the evening and continue through the night, although preparations start days in advance. Preparing the Kolam - the huge headgear/crown and other associated accessories - is a significant part of the Padayani. Natural materials such as arecanut palm spathe (Paala), terracotta powder, charcoal, turmeric powder and coconut palm fronds are used to make fresh crowns and masks for each performance. The creation of crowns and face masks involves high artistic craftsmanship that is passed down from generation to generation, along with the performance and music traditions of the Padayani.

The Padayani is performed by male artistes who follow strict spiritual discipline for days, before the performance. The main performer often enters a trance during the performance which is a common element in major ritualistic performances. Besides the ritual aspects, the goddess comes out of the shrine, interacts with humans, and mingles with fellow devotees. So, the Padayani has been identified as a form of total theatre by the recent researches. The performance provides a complete dramatic spectacle for the audience, with the plot divided into different scenes that vary in their elements of spirituality and entertainment. The season for Padayani performances is during the Malayalam months of Kumbham, Meenam and Medam (February, March and April). The major villages known for traditional Padayani rituals include Kadammanitta, Kottangal, Othara and Kunnanthaanam in Pathanamthitta district and Neelamperoor in Alappuzha district.